academiies, Leibniz’s involvement 118, 135, 179–80
proposal for China 118
see also Berlin Society of Sciences
accommodation
of other cultures 4–15
of polygamy 187
of Chinese history 121
toward China 26–32
as missionary method 27–28
as threat to Church 30–31
Leibniz’s view 28, 31, 114, 128, 160, 171, 184–86, 194
role of interpretation 187–90
Adam 8, 25
Adamic language 8, 141, 143
Africa, European contact with 3
Madagascar 111
see also Egypt
Amelie, Empress 134
Americas, European contact with 3, 10
see also native Americans
ancient theology 6–10
and natural theology 9–10
and Leibniz 10, 25–26, 165, 173–74
Anselm 175
appetition 69
apperception 61, 83
conditioned by unconscious perceptions 64–65, 75, 79
learning as emergence into 77, 83, 97
appropriateness [yi] 19, 20
Aquinas 1, 4–6, 10, 185
In Boethium De Trinitate 4, 5
Summa Contra Gentiles 4, 5, 6
Summa Theologica 5
Arabs 183
Aristotle 2, 4, 6, 74, 164, 167, 185, 188
Arnauld, Antoine 26, 29, 74–77, 128
astronomy in China 137
role of Jesuits 24, 137
European interest 116, 135
Augustine, St. 1, 7, 186, 188
City of God 7
Augustinians, attitude toward pagans 115, 164, 186
Averroes (Ibn Rushd) 3, 161, 166
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) 3
Babel 8, 25, 26, 141
Bacon, Francis 137, 181
Batavia (Jakarta) 116, 139
Bayle, Pierre 90, 109, 156, 166, 181
Behrens, Conrad Barthold 139
Beijing 2, 14, 114
benevolence [ren] 19, 205
Berlin Society of Sciences 43, 112, 116, 118, 133, 179
Bernard, Edward 140
best of all possible worlds 50, 51, 52, 56, 57, 59–60, 67, 178–79
Beurrier, Paul 8, 9
Bible
Vulgate 25
Septuagint 25
see also history, Biblical basis
binary arithmetic 116–18, 127
and hexagrams 116–18, 165
as illustration of creation 116
Boineberg, Johann Christian von 109
Book of Changes, see Yi Jing
Borges, Jorge Luis 48
Bourget, Louis 116
Bouvet, Joachim 8–9, 10, 24, 25, 114, 116–17, 124, 144, 145, 173–74, 194
as source 128, 134, 138, 140, 143, 192
letters to 118, 126, 127, 138, 139, 142, 146, 147, 148, 153
Brinon, Marie de 154
Broad, C. D. 76
Brochhausen 134
Buddha 15
Buddhism
European knowledge of 1, 19, 166
and Neo-Confucianism 20–26, 169, 192
Buridan’s Ass 53
Burgh, Albert 37
Burnet, Gilbert 129, 130
Burnett of Kemney, Thomas 115, 129
Butler, Joseph (bishop) 165
Byzantium, fall of 3, 7
Cabbala 9
calendar monopoly 135
cartography 116
Casaubon, Isaac 8
causality 62, 63, 81
Caze, Cesar 116
Celts 183
Cleyer, Andreas 139
Chan, Wing-Tsit 17
Chappuzeau, Samuel 121
characteristic, universal 89, 90, 141–46, 147
and Chinese characters 113–14, 141–46
use in missions 122
Chauvin, Etienne 129, 130, 132
Chen Chun 191
China
ancient (pre-Qin) history 15–20, 192
compared with Europe 109, 113, 119–20, 126, 135–37, 146–49, 151–53
compared with Egypt 8, 112–13, 142, 173–74
contact with Europe 1, 2, 11
economics and trade 110, 112
math and science 14, 145
religions 14
Han Dynasty 20
Qin Dynasty 15, 20
Qing Dynasty 14, 24, 127
Manchu conquest 14–15, 111–12, 127
Ming Dynasty 13–14
Song Dynasty 19, 20, 192
Yuan Dynasty 2, 14
Chinese language 16, 144
and Egyptian hieroglyphs 9, 142, 173
Leibniz’s interest 42, 109, 113–14, 115
use for characteristic 113–14, 142–43
Ching, Julia 194
Chuno, Jacob Julius 122, 129–35
church fathers 164, 182
approach to pagans 4, 7, 123
Cima, Nicolas Agostino 115
Classics, Chinese 16, 19
translations of 19, 108, 109, 125, 159
see also Yi Jing
clavis sinica 113, 118, 125, 143, 144, 173
Colbert, Jean Baptiste 136, 148
colonialism 46, 110–11
and Leibniz 110–11
comparative philosophy xi, 45, 168–69, 201–08
comparison between Leibniz and Chinese thought 21, 22, 168
compossibility 54, 55–56, 59, 63
conciliatory eclecticism 10, 112, 174
Confucianism 15–23, 192
classical Confucianism 18–20, 191
compared to Leibniz’s thought 21, 22, 168
compared to European tradition 21, 165–67
influence on Leibniz 168–69
Leibniz’s interpretation of 191–94
morality 19–20, 22–23
European praise for 95, 146–47, 157, 185
politics 20
see also Neo-Confucianism
Confucius [Kongzi] 18–19, 32, 115, 191
Lun Yu [Analects] 18–19, 20, 191
Confucius Sinarum Philosophus 19, 29
contingent truths 47, 54, 85
relation to necessary truths 66–67, 83
and revealed truths 181
Cook, Daniel xii, 42, 169
Couplet, Philippe 29, 108, 125, 159, 191, 192
Couturat, Louis 45
cultural diversity 56, 88–97, 161–62, 171–72, 195–97
in Descartes 34
in Locke 39–40
and language 89, 92, 93
and necessary truths 84
cultural exchange 42–43, 44, 45, 121–22, 170–71, 199–200, 201–08
basis 51–52, 73, 96, 106–07, 119–20, 172
culture 61, 63, 65, 94
in Descartes 33
creation 25, 49–50, 151, 174
binary arithmetic as illustration 116, 127
Chinese views 49–50
cultural relativism 12, 34, 46, 201, 207
dao 16, 49, 191
Daoism 16
Europe knowledge of 19
and Neo-Confucianism 20, 22
de Crux de Monceaux, René-Henri 155
de Lionne, Artus 166
de Tournon, Charles Thomas Maillard 31
de Volder, Burcher 69
DeFrancis, John 144
Deluge 9, 16, 25, 115
Des Bosses, Bartholomaeus 43, 114, 188, 189, 190
Descartes, René ix, 36, 50, 62, 83, 99, 149, 167, 175
innate ideas 41, 72, 97
innate ideas and universal consent 41
relation to other cultures 6, 10, 33–34, 73, 74, 199
theory of ideas 74
Discourse on Method 33–34
Passions of the Soul 149
dictionary, Chinese 127, 144
dispositions 75, 76, 77, 177
diversity and order 43–44, 45–52
criterion of perfection 47–48, 59–60
in God 49–50
Dominicans, in China mission 27
Edict of Nantes 147
Edict of Toleration 25, 123, 127, 147
Egypt
and China 8, 112–13, 142, 173–74
European contact with 1, 7
European interest in 8
as trade intermediaries 2, 3
see also Egyptian expedition
Egyptian expedition 3, 109–13, 134
embodiment 63, 64–65, 81–82, 88–89, 94–97, 105
Enoch 9, 25
Ernst von Hessen-Rheinfalls 187
Euclid 2, 24
Euro-centrism ix–x, 11, 46, 199–200
in Leibniz 110, 194–95
European contact with other cultures ix–xi, 1–13
ancient world 1, 12
expansion by sea 3–4, 110–11
medieval 1–3, 4
evil, problem of
Chinese views 50
as limitation 55
relation to God’s understanding 52, 55–56
examination system 13, 163
expression 45, 50, 79–81, 84, 99, 202–03
Eze, Emmanuel x
faith 5–6, 181–82
Ficino, Marsilio 7
Figurism 9, 173
see also ancient theology
filial piety [xiao] 20, 32
final causes 50–51, 60, 87, 150, 185, 186
force 50, 58
and religion 181
in substances 61
Foucault, Michel 48
Fontaney, Jean de 118, 190
Franciscans, in China mission 2, 27
Francke, Augustus Hermannus 130, 132
French colonialism 10, 110–11
Fung, Yu-lan 17
Fuxi 9, 16, 18, 25, 26, 117, 144, 145, 146
Gee, Eduard 130
geometry 86
importance of for ethics 119, 150–51
role in mission 123
Gerbillon, Jean-François 24
ginseng 113
Goa (India) 3, 131
Jesuit college 4
God 60
compared to Chinese terms 167, 189, 192–93, 196, 206
idea of 94, 176, 178
proof from necessary truths 175–76
ontological proof 86, 97–98, 175
proof from sufficient reason 48–50, 176
teleological proof 176–80
understanding 52–57, 65–67
universal consent 6, 33, 40, 176
will 53
Grimaldi, Claudio Filippo 120, 125, 127, 131
letters to 116, 125, 127, 135
as source 114, 134, 139, 140
Grosholz, Emily 106
Ham 26
Heaven; see tian
Heidegger, Martin 97
Herbert of Cherbury 40, 41
hermeneutics 10, 158–67, 203–06
of ancient theology 7, 10
assumption of shared rationality 160–62, 169
of Leibniz
principle of generosity 163, 164, 195, 196, 197–98
role in Rites Controversy 184–85, 187–90
of Scholastics 164
supposed superiority of Europeans 145, 164–65
Hermes Trismegistus 7, 9
Hermetic texts 3
Corpus Hermeticum 7, 8
see also ancient theology
hexagrams of Yi Jing 10, 18
and binary artithmetic 116, 117–18, 144–45, 165
and Chinese characters 145
hieroglyphs 8, 9, 142, 173
history
Biblical view 8, 9, 25–26
Chinese records 25–26, 119, 135
impact of Chinese records in Europe 25, 115
Holland
and Egyptian expedition 109, 110
route to China 131, 132
holy war 111–12
Hop, Jacob 129
Hume, David 202
Huxley, Aldous 6
ideas 74
analysis of 72, 84, 87, 91–92, 103
and cultural diversity 34
in Descartes 41, 72, 74, 97
distinct from notions 71, 72, 83, 92
innate 61, 73–78, 88, 100
as perceptions 79
as dispositions 75, 76–77
and learning 93–94, 184
in Locke 41, 74
normative role 73, 75
and self-reflection 77–78
in Spinoza 36–38, 40, 68, 73, 74, 84
and universals 12, 32, 35, 36–38, 40–41, 65
identity of indiscernibles 60
Imhof, Jakob Wilhelm 129
immortality of soul 82, 86, 98, 169–71, 172
immortality, drink of 115
India, contact with Europe 1, 2, 12, 37, 38, 111, 130, 134
influence of Chinese thought on Leibniz 168–69
instinct for reasoning 88, 160, 202
for idea of God 177
Intercetta, Prospero 108, 109–13
interpretation, of China by Leibniz 158–67
evaluated 194–98
preference for ancients over moderns 163–65
see also hermeneutics
Islam, European attitudes toward 23, 36, 111–12
Jablonski, Daniel Ernst 134
Jansenists 27, 30, 186
Japan 166
mission in 123, 133, 142
Jartoux, Pierre 24, 116, 134
Jensen, Lionel 13
Jesuit mission in China 9–10, 15, 23–25
accommodation 26–32
involvement by Leibniz 114, 125–27, 128
Leibniz’s concerns 120–21, 122–23
views of Chinese culture 15, 16, 19
Jewish community in China 115
Jolley, Nicholas 50, 74, 77
Judas 54
Kangxi 14, 144, 147
Bouvet’s portrait of 15, 128
on Bouvet 9
on European missionaries 24–25, 29, 121, 124
Leibniz’s praise for 120, 128
on Rites Controversy 31–32, 164, 190, 199
Kant, Immanuel 107, 202
Kassel, plan for academy 118, 133
key to Chinese – see clavis sinica
Kongzi – see Confucius
Kirch, Gottfried 116
Kircher, Athanasius 8, 9, 13, 109, 112
China Monumentis Illustrata 173
knowledge
blind or symbolic 91–92, 153
causal 100–01
intuitive 82, 92, 98, 153
of world outside mind 99–100
Kochanski, Adam 114
La Croze, Maturin Veyssière 143, 144, 146, 173
La Loubère, Simon de 108, 120, 122, 148
Du Royaume de Siam 109
Lach, Donald xii, 132
land route to China 127, 131–33
language, dependence of reason on 92–93, 139
Larroque, Daniel 121, 141
Laureati, Giovanni 125
Le Comte, Louis 30, 108
Le Gobien, Charles 9, 30, 123
learning 83, 93–94, 97
Lefort, François 132
Legge, James 17, 165
Leibniz, Wilhelm Gottfried
Common Concept of Justice 178
Confessio Naturae Contra Atheistas 175, 181
De Arte Combinatoria 109
De Originibus Gentium Ductis Potissimum ex Indicio Linguarum 141
Discourse on Metaphysics 59, 68, 70–73, 74, 80, 90, 103
Discourse on the Natural Theology of the Chinese 124, 151, 152, 159–60, 171, 172, 174, 188, 189, 191
Examen Religionis Christianae 182, 186, 187
Explication de l’arithmétique Binaire 117–18
Meditations of Knowledge, Truth, and Ideas 71, 83, 91
Modus Instituendi Militiam Novam Invictam 111
Monadology 49, 70
New Essays on Human Understanding 71, 72, 74, 79, 81, 84, 85, 86, 90, 99, 101, 139, 140, 160, 163, 168, 176, 184, 186, 202
New System of the Nature and Communication of Substances 80
Novissima Sinica 15, 43, 113, 114, 119, 122, 123, 127–33, 146, 151, 152, 155, 186
On Nature Itself 50, 61
On the True Theologica Mystica 152
On the Ultimate Origination of Things 48, 58–60, 106
Principles of Nature and Grace 59, 61, 70
Quid sit Idea 80
Theodicy 6, 56, 57, 59, 72, 80–81, 85, 95, 100, 150, 151, 152, 174–75, 182, 186
li [principle] 21–22, 23, 191, 192
European interpretations of 161, 162, 167, 174, 189, 193, 196
linguistics, comparative 89, 93, 116, 141
literati [ru] 15, 20, 22, 27, 147, 163
Locke, John ix, 53, 83, 99, 104, 109, 149
attitude toward other cultures 38–42, 44, 199
innate idea of God 41
innate knowledge and universal consent 12, 40–41, 184
skepticism and tolerance 38–41
theory of ideas 74
Essay Concerning Human Understanding 39
Letter Concerning Toleration 38
Longobardi, Nicholas 27, 108, 159, 161, 163, 164, 167, 169, 191, 192, 193
Louis XIV 109, 136, 147
Ludolf, Heinrich Wilhelm 132
Ludolf, Hiob 115–16, 140
Maigrot, Charles 32
Magliabechi, Antonio 131
magnetic declination 132
Malebranche, Nicolas 26, 182
on ideas 68, 75
views of China 108, 166
Dialogue between a Christian Philosopher and a Chinese Philosopher 160, 166, 169
Manicheanism 1, 49, 55, 161
Marchetti, Annibal 188
Martini, Martino 25, 108
Mates, Benson 55
mathematics, interest of Kangxi 24
McRae, Robert 74, 75
medicine, Chinese 116, 118, 138–39
Meier, Gerhard 186, 187
Mel, Konrad 130
Mengzi 19, 114, 165, 205–06
Mentzel, Christian 143, 144
Mercer, Christia 10, 174
Merkel, Franz Rudolf 130–33
migration of peoples 119, 134, 140–41
minds 61, 65, 68–73
as expressions 46–47, 97, 104–07
express God 70–73, 83, 84–85, 87, 88–89
image of God 71, 96
relation to body 64–65, 90–91
relations between 46–47, 81, 158–59, 171–72
mining 135
Miscellanea Berolinensia 134, 141
missions – Leibniz’s view 110, 111–12, 122–25, 133–34
need for Chinese missionaries to Europe 154, 155
monads 60–61
contain universe and other cultures 61, 63
contain innate ideas 68
express universe 81–83, 105
as perception and appetition 69–70
relations between 63–65
see also minds
Mongol empire 2, 14
Montaigne, Michel de 10–12, 33, 38
morality 149–53
and natural theology 152–53, 154–56, 179
praise for Chinese 95, 146–47, 157, 185
and science 150–51
Morell, Andreas 123, 129, 132
Moses 7, 8, 167
Müller, Andreas 113–14, 135, 143, 165
multi-culturalism ix–x, xi, 1–13
Mungello, David xii, 108, 159, 166, 194
Napoleon 109
native Americans 10, 11, 38
nature, laws of 103–04, 182
Naverette, Domingo Fernandez 26
necessary truths
applied to experience 86–87, 98–103, 162
of compossibility 54
and cultural diversity 84, 88–97
and experience 88, 139, 153, 156
foundation in God 52, 54–55, 70–73, 181
identities 85–86
relation to contingent truths 66–67
and revealed truths 181
Needham, Joseph 21, 168, 169, 180
Neo-Confucianism 19, 20–23, 192
li xue 20–23, 163–65, 191–92
use of history 192, 193
Neo-Platonism 3, 4, 7
Nerchinsk, Treaty of 24, 127
Nestorian Christians 2
Nestorian monument 115, 127
Newton, Isaac 182
Noah 8, 9, 25, 26, 115, 165
nominalism 55, 66
occasionalism 182
Oldenburg, Henry 109
Orban, Ferdinand 114
orientalism x, 110, 194
Orléans, duchess of 115
Ottoman empire 2, 7, 36, 134
Oxtoby, Willard 194
pagans
salvation of 29, 51, 185, 186
wisdom 184, 185, 186
Papebroch, Daniel 125, 131
Pascal, Blaise 26
Patriarchs, Biblical 9, 25, 117, 165, 173, 174, 192
Paul, St. 189
Pellisson-Fontanier, Paul 113, 131
Penn, William 179
perception 61, 69–70, 83
as foundation for apperception 64–65, 79
as inclination 83
influence of, confused 95
of innate ideas 75–77, 79
as natural feeling 176–77
perfection, principle of 57–60, 66
diversity and order 46, 47–48
efficiency 57–58
maximization of being 58
Persia 131, 134
Ormuz (Iran) 3, 110
perspective 46–47, 60, 63, 64, 65, 73, 75, 79, 81, 104–07
Peter the Great (czar) 43, 116, 132–33, 200
philosophy, relation to theology 1–2, 3, 4–6
Pinot, Virgile 27, 29, 147
Placcius, Vincent 130
Plato 6, 7, 9, 15, 167, 188
Meno 94
Plutarch 12
Polo, Marco 2
polygamy 115, 122, 187
Portuguese colonialism 3
route to China 131
possible worlds 49
preestablished harmony 62–63, 68, 77, 90–91
propagatio fidei per scientias 133, 180, 181
Protestant missions, promotion of 123, 128–31, 133
Pythagoras 7, 9
qi [material force] 21–22, 23, 162–63, 174, 191, 192
race x, 46, 199
relations, status of 66
reason 61, 85, 96–97, 100–01
as analysis of ideas 101
and cultural diversity 88–97, 160–62
dependence on signs 89–93
and faith 182
Rémond, Nicholas 43, 160
Rescher, Nicholas 58, 62
Ricci, Matteo 10, 13, 15, 24, 135, 160, 190
position of accommodation 27–28
Riley, Patrick 51, 157, 174, 179
rites to ancestors, descriptions of 28–29, 190
Rites Controversy 26–32
decisions of Church 31, 32, 199
Leibniz’s involvement 114, 128, 184–85
reaction in China 31–32, 199
rites to Confucius and ancestors 26–27, 28–29, 30
Leibniz’s interpretation 190
statement of Sorbonne 27, 29–30
terms for God 26, 29–30
Leibniz’s interpretation 191–94
see also accommodation
ritual propriety [li] 19, 30, 190
Rosemont, Henry Jr. xii, 42, 137, 169
Rudolph of Brunswick (duke) 116
Rutherford, Donald 48, 57, 59, 97
Russell, Bertrand 45
Russia, Leibniz’s involvement 118, 131–33
Said, Edward x, 110
Sainte-Marie, Antoine de 108, 159, 160–61, 164, 167, 189, 191, 192
sati 12
Saxon, plan for academy 118, 133
Schall, Johann Adam 24, 137
Scholastics 164, 167, 181
Schröck, Lucas 116, 139
science
Chinese 14, 135–39
connection to morality 150–51
limitations 103–04
mix of perception and reason 97–104, 135–37
and religion 138, 178–79, 180, 181
use in missions 123, 126–27, 179
sectarianism, Leibniz’s criticism 153–54, 155, 157, 186–87
self-reflection 34, 69, 77, 78
a posteriori 77–78
a priori 78
senses 80, 99, 103
Shang Di 16–17, 19, 26–27, 29, 31, 191, 193
Shao Yong 117
Shem 26
Shirley, Samuel 37
Shun (legendary emperor) 16
Shunzhi (Qing emperor) 14, 24
Siam 108, 166
king of 67, 69
signs
dependence of reason on 89–93, 139, 142
and mind/body relationship 90–91
symbolic/blind knowledge 91–92, 153
silk, monopoly to fund Berlin Society 135
Sivin, Nathan 120, 137
skepticism
as basis for tolerance 12, 38–41
and cultural diversity 10–12, 33–34, 39–40
of experience 60, 67, 162
Socrates 94
Sophie (electress of Hanover) 130, 139, 154, 155
Sophie Charlotte 115
Sorbonne, involvement in Rites Controversy 27, 29–30
space 64, 65, 81–82, 88, 96
Spanheim, Ezechiel 174
Spanish colonialism 3, 11
route to China 131
species, use in science 101–02
Spinoza, Benedict de 6, 50, 62, 97, 105
attitude toward other cultures 34–38, 44, 199
common notions 36–38, 68
common notions and cultural universals 40, 68, 73, 74, 84
compared with Chinese thought 22, 166, 192
religion and natural theology 35–36
spirits, Chinese views 167, 169, 174
Leibniz’s arguments against 169–71, 172
Spitzel, Gottlieb 8, 13, 109, 112, 138–39, 145
Stoicism 166, 167, 192
substance 54, 60–61
Chinese views 21
force 61
indestructible 82, 86, 98
see also monads
sufficient reason, principle of 48–50, 51, 52, 151
leading to God 48–50, 52, 54
tai ji [great ultimate] 191, 192, 193
Taylor, Charles 198
Tentzel, Wilhelm 116, 131
Tertullian 167
theodicy 51, 151
theology, natural 86, 172–84, 4–6
and ancient theology 9–10
basis for missions 123–25
in China 5, 28, 29, 124, 151–52, 165, 172, 183
and ethics 152–53, 154–55
and other cultures 5, 6, 33, 172–73, 183, 185
and revealed theology 2, 35–36, 94, 148, 154–57, 162
theology, negative 167
theology, relation to philosophy 1–2, 3, 4–6
Theresa, St. 62
Thevenot, Melchisedech 120
Thomasius, Jacob 174
tian [Heaven] 17, 19, 22, 26–27, 29, 31, 49, 191, 206
tian dao [way of Heaven] 191
tianming [Mandate of Heaven] 17
Toland, John 115
tolerance 12–13, 35, 36
and skepticism 12, 38–41
Tournemine, René-Josephe 114
trade 2, 3, 110–11, 112, 135
truths of fact 47, 66, 82–83, 97–104
provisional 181–82
relation to necessary truths 66–67, 86–87
unification of Christians 124–25, 129, 186–87
Upanishads 1
Ulrich, Anton 132
Van Kley, Edwin 25
Venetians, trade with Asia 2, 3
Verbiest, Ferdinand 24, 137
Verjus, Antoine 42, 43, 114, 122, 126, 131, 142, 180, 190
Vienna, plan for academy 118, 133, 134
Voltaire 59, 156
von der Hardt, Hermann 121
Vossius, Isaac 25
Wallis, John 130
Wang Yangming 23
Webb, John 26
Wen (king) 16, 18
Widmaier, Rita xii, 142
will 53
Witsen, Nicholas 116, 140
Wolff, Christian 156
world soul 161, 162, 166
Wu (king) 16
xin [heart/mind] 23
xin xue [school of mind/heart] 22–23
Xunzi 19
Yao (legendary emperor) 16, 25
Yi Jing (Book of Changes) 9, 10, 16, 17–18, 25, 29, 116, 145, 194
yin and yang 18
Yoke, Ho Peng 137
Zhou, Duke of 16, 18
Zhu Xi 20, 21, 23, 29, 163
Zoroaster 7, 9, 26
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