The Languages of the Andes

THE LANGUAGES OF THE ANDES

The Andean and Pacific regions of South America are home to a remarkable variety of languages and language families, with a range of typological differences. This linguistic diversity results from a complex historical background, comprising periods of greater communication between different peoples and languages, and periods of fragmentation and individual development. The Languages of the Andes is the first book in English to document in a single volume the indigenous languages spoken and formerly spoken in this linguistically rich region, as well as in adjacent areas. Grouping the languages into different cultural spheres, it describes their characteristics in terms of language typology, language contact, and the social perspectives of present-day languages. The authors provide both historical and contemporary information, and illustrate the languages with detailed grammatical sketches. Written in a clear and accessible style, this book will be a valuable source for students and scholars of linguistics and anthropology alike.

WILLEM F. H. ADELAAR is Professor of Amerindian Languages and Cultures at Leiden University. He has travelled widely in South America and has conducted fieldwork in Peru on different varieties of Quechua and minor languages of the area. He has also worked on the historical-comparative reconstruction of South American languages, and since 1991 has been involved in international activities addressing the issue of language endangerment. His previously published books include Tarma Quechua (1977) and Het Boek van Huarochirí (1988).

PIETER C. MUYSKEN is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Nijmegen. He has travelled widely in the Caribbean and the Andes, and was previously Professor of Sociolinguistics and Creole Studies at the University of Amsterdam and Professor of Linguistics and Latin American Studies at Leiden University. He is co-editor of the Cambridge journal Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, and his previously published books include Bilingual Speech: a Typology of Code-mixing (Cambridge, 2000), and One Speaker, Two Languages (co-edited with Lesley Milroy, Cambridge, 1995).

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CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE SURVEYS

General editors
P. Austin (University of Melbourne)
J. Bresnan (Stanford University)
B. Comrie (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig)
W. Dressler (University of Vienna)
C. Ewen (University of Leiden)
R. Lass (University of Cape Town)
D. Lightfoot (University of Maryland)
I. Roberts (University of Cambridge)
S. Romaine (University of Oxford)
N. V. Smith (University College London)

This series offers general accounts of the major language families of the world, with volumes organised either on a purely genetic basis or on a geographical basis, whichever yields the most convenient and intelligible grouping in each case. Each volume compares and contrasts the typological features of the languages it deals with. It also treats the relevant genetic relationships, historical development and sociolinguistic issues arising from their role and use in the world today. The books are intended for linguists from undergraduate level upwards, but no special knowledge of the languages under consideration is assumed. Volumes such as those on Australia and the Amazon Basin are also of wider relevance, as the future of the languages and their speakers raises important social and political issues.

Volumes already published include

Chinese Jerry Norman

The languages of Japan Masayoshi Shibatani

Pidgins and Creoles (volume Ⅰ: Theory and structure; volume Ⅱ: Reference survey) John A. Holm

The Indo-Aryan languages Colin Masica

The Celtic languages edited by Donald MacAulay

The Romance languages Rebecca Posner

The Amazonian languages edited by R. M. W Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald

The languages of Native North America Marianne Mithun

The Korean language Ho-Him Sohn

Australian languages R. M. W. Dixon

The Dravidian languages Bhadriraju Krishnamurti

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THE LANGUAGES OF THE ANDES

WILLEM F. H. ADELAAR

with the collaboration of PIETER C. MUYSKEN

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PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge, CB2 2RU, UK
40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcón 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa

http:/ /www.cambridge.org

© Willem F. H. Adelaar and Pieter C. Muysken 2004

This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2004

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

Typeface Times New Roman 9/13 pt     System LATEX 2_e   [TB]

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data

Adelaar, Willem F. H.
The languages of the Andes / Willem F. H. Adelaar with the collaboration of Pieter C. Muysken.
p.  cm. – (Cambridge language surveys)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0 521 36275 X (hardback) – ISBN 0 521 36831 6 (paperback)
1. Indians of South America – Andes Region – Languages. I. Muysken, Pieter. II. Title. III. Series.
PM5100.A34   2004
498 – dc22     2003055815

ISBN 0 521 36275 X hardback

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CONTENTS

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	List of tables	page x
	List of maps	xiv
	Preface	xv
	Orthographic conventions	xvi
	List of abbreviations	xx
1	Introduction	1
1.1	The languages of the Andes	4
1.2	Physical description	6
1.3	Brief history of the region	7
1.4	A brief overview of the different Andean countries	10
1.5	History of the study of the Andean languages	15
1.5.1	The colonial period	15
1.5.2	The nineteenth century	18
1.5.3	Contemporary Andean linguistics	19
1.6	Sources for the study of the languages of the Andes	20
1.7	Genetic relations of South American Indian languages	22
1.7.1	History of classificatory efforts	23
1.7.2	Quechuan and Aymaran, Quechumaran	34
1.7.3	Other proposals for individual language families	36
1.7.4	The Greenberg (1987) proposal	41
2	The Chibcha Sphere	46
2.1	The language groups and their distribution	50
2.2	Research on the native languages of Colombia	54
2.3	Chocoan	56
2.4	Yurumanguí	60
2.5	Cuna	61
2.6	The languages of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta	66
2.7	Chimila	75
2.8	Barí	80
2.9	The Muisca language	81
2.9.1	Sources	82
2.9.2	Phonology	83
2.9.3	Grammar	89
2.9.4	Lexicon	103
2.9.5	A Muisca text	106
2.10	Tunebo (Uw Cuwa)	109
2.11	Yukpa and Magdalena valley Cariban	112
2.12	The Arawakan languages of the Caribbean coast	115
2.13	Timote–Cuica	124
2.14	Jirajaran	129
2.15	Páez (Nasa Yuwe)	130
2.16	Andaquí and the languages of the Upper Magdalena valley	138
2.17	Barbacoan languages	141
2.18	Kamsá	151
2.19	Esmeraldeño	155
2.20	Overview of the languages of the eastern Colombian lowlands	161
3	The Inca Sphere	165
3.1	The languages and their distribution	168
3.2	The Quechuan language family	179
3.2.1	The Quechua homeland	180
3.2.2	Historical overview of the colonial period	182
3.2.3	Dialect situation	183
3.2.4	Quechua studies	191
3.2.5	Phonology	194
3.2.6	Grammar	207
3.2.7	Characteristics of the Quechua lexicon	233
3.2.8	A sketch of an Ecuadorian Quechua dialect (Salasaca)	237
3.2.9	A sketch of a Peruvian Quechua dialect (Pacaraos)	242
3.2.10	A Cuzco Quechua text fragment	249
3.2.11	Literary production in Quechua	254
3.2.12	Social factors influencing the future of Quechua	256
3.3	The Aymaran language family	259
3.3.1	Past and present distribution	260
3.3.2	Homeland and expansion	263
3.3.3	Internal variation in the Aymaran language family	264
3.3.4	Salient features of the Aymaran language family	267
3.3.5	Aymara phonology	270
3.3.6	Aymara grammar	274
3.3.7	Aymara lexicon	293
3.3.8	Literary production in Aymara	296
3.3.9	Aymara sample text	296
3.3.10	The Jaqaru language	301
3.3.11	Jaqaru sample text	315
3.4	The Mochica language	319
3.4.1	The sounds of Mochica	321
3.4.2	Mochica grammar	328
3.4.3	Mochica sample texts	344
3.5	Puquina and Callahuaya	350
3.6	The Uru–Chipaya languages	362
3.7	The Atacameño language	375
3.8	The Lule–Tonocoté language	385
3.9	Extinct and poorly documented languages of the Inca Sphere	391
3.9.1	Ecuador	392
3.9.2	Northern Peru	397
3.9.3	Northwestern Argentina	407
4	The languages of the eastern slopes	411
4.1	The Pano–Tacanan languages	418
4.2	The Arawakan languages	422
4.2.1	Yaneshaʹ phonology	424
4.2.2	The principal grammatical features of Yaneshaʹ	425
4.2.3	Complex sentences in Yaneshaʹ	430
4.3	Tupi–Guaraní	430
4.4	The Jivaroan languages	432
4.4.1	Shuar phonology	433
4.4.2	The principal grammatical features of Shuar	435
4.4.3	Complex sentences in Shuar	445
4.5	Cahuapana	447
4.6	Bora–Huitoto	449
4.7	The Zaparoan languages	451
4.8	The Tucanoan languages	453
4.9	Small families and supposed language isolates in Ecuador	454
4.10	Small families and supposed language isolates in Peru	456
4.11	Cholón	460
4.11.1	The Cholón lexicon and relationship with Hibito	461
4.11.2	Gender-determined language use	462
4.11.3	Cholón phonology	463
4.11.4	The principal grammatical features of Cholón	463
4.11.5	The basic word order of Cholón	475
4.12	Small families and supposed language isolates in Bolivia	475
4.13	Chiquitano	477
4.13.1	Gender-determined language use in Chiquitano	478
4.13.2	Chiquitano phonology	479
4.13.3	The principal grammatical features of Chiquitano	480
4.13.4	Chiquitano word order	488
4.14	The languages of the Chaco region: Guaicuruan, Matacoan, Zamucoan and Lengua–Mascoy	488
4.15	Quechua influences on eastern slopes languages	499
5	The Araucanian Sphere	502
5.1	Araucanian or Mapuche	508
5.1.1	Mapuche studies	510
5.1.2	The sounds of Mapuche	512
5.1.3	Grammar	517
5.1.4	Lexicon	537
5.1.5	Mapuche sample text	539
5.2	The Allentiac language	544
6	The languages of Tierra del Fuego	550
6.1	The languages and their distribution	552
6.2	Ethnohistory	555
6.3	Problems in classification	556
6.4	Linguistic features	558
6.4.1	The Chonan languages	558
6.4.2	Chono and Kawesqar	564
6.4.3	Yahgan	567
6.4.4	Areal-typological features of the Fuegian languages	578
6.5	Oral literature	580
6.6	Language contact	580
6.7	A Tehuelche text	582
7	The Spanish presence	585
7.1	Characteristics of Andean Spanish	585
7.1.1	Demography and the Iberian dialectal origins	586
7.1.2	Linguistic features	587
7.2	Amerindian substratum influence	589
7.3	Language mixture and pidginisation in the Andes and the Amazon basin	602
7.4	African influences	604
7.5	Language planning and policy with respect to the Amerindian languages and to bilingual education	605
7.6	Andean languages in the modern world	608
	Appendix: Inventory of languages and language families of the Andean region	610
	References	625
	Author index	681
	Index of languages and ethnic groups	690
	Subject index	703

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TABLES

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1.1	Percentage of Indian population in the different Andean countries	page 11
1.2	Early grammars of Andean languages	16
1.3	Greenberg’s (1956) classification of the languages of the Andes	28
1.4	The four networks proposed by Swadesh (1959, 1962)	29
1.5	The language families relevant to the Andes listed in Loukotka (1968)	31
1.6	Groupings suggested by Suárez (1974) of language families and isolates included in Loukotka (1968)	32
1.7	Language families relevant to the Andes listed in Kaufman (1990) with their correlates in Loukotka (1968)	33
1.8	Greenberg’s (1987) classification of the languages of the Andes	44
2.1	Overview of the consonant inventories of Chocoan languages and dialects	58
2.2	Cuna consonant inventory	63
2.3	Overview of the consonant inventories of the Arhuacan languages	68
2.4	Possessive modifiers in Chimila	77
2.5	Personal reference markers for subject and object in Chimila	78
2.6	Inventory of Muisca consonant phonemes	88
2.7	Inventory of Muisca vowel phonemes	88
2.8	Personal reference in Muisca	97
2.9	Inventory of Muisca pronoun and case combinations	100
2.10	Uw Cuwa (Tunebo) consonant inventory	110
2.11	Proto-Yukpa consonants	113
2.12	Guajiro consonant inventory	117
2.13	Personal prefixes and pronouns in Guajiro	120
2.14	Caldono Páez obstruents	131
2.15	Caldono Páez continuants	132
2.16	Caldono Páez vowels	132
2.17	Person markers in Nasa Yuwe (Páez)	135
2.18	Guambiano consonant inventory	143
2.19	Awa Pit (Cuaiquer) consonant inventory	144
2.20	Tsafiki (Colorado) consonant inventory	144
2.21	Chaʹpalaachi (Cayapa) consonant inventory	145
2.22	Awa Pit pronouns	148
2.23	Chaʹpalaachi pronouns	148
2.24	Kamsá consonant phonemes	152
2.25	Kamsá personal reference markers	153
3.1	Proto-Quechua consonants	196
3.2	Proto-Quechua vowels	196
3.3	The Quechua four-person system	211
3.4	Subject conjugation in Ayacucho Quechua	219
3.5	Valency-changing suffixes in Quechua	229
3.6	Jaqaru personal reference markers	269
3.7	La Paz Aymara consonant inventory	271
3.8	Aymara subject and subject–object paradigm for the unmarked tense	282
3.9	Subject and subject–object endings for the future tense in La Paz and Sitajara Aymara	284
3.10	Aymara subject and subject–object paradigm for the imperative mood	285
3.11	Subject and subject–object endings for the present and past potential mood in La Paz Aymara	286
3.12	Nominalising affixes in Aymara	288
3.13	Jaqaru consonant inventory	302
3.14	Subject and subject–object endings of the unmarked tense in Jaqaru	307
3.15	Subject and subject–object endings of the future tense in Jaqaru	308
3.16	Mochica vowels as represented in Carrera Daza (1644) and Middendorf (1892)	324
3.17	Sibilants in seventeenth-century Mochica	326
3.18	Overview of the consonant symbols in the Mochica grammars of Carrera Daza (1644) and Middendorf (1892)	329
3.19	Personal reference in Mochica	331
3.20	Mochica preterit and future tenses	337
3.21	Numerals 1 to 10 in Mochica	343
3.22	Puquina personal and possessive pronouns	353
3.23	Possessed nouns in Callahuaya	359
3.24	Personal and possessive pronouns in Callahuaya	360
3.25	Callahuaya consonant inventory	361
3.26	Chipaya consonant inventory	364
3.27	Unmarked present tense in Chipaya	371
3.28	Tentative inventory of Atacameño sounds	380
3.29	Possessive nominal paradigm in Atacameño	381
3.30	Atacameño personal and possessive pronouns	382
3.31	Verbal past-tense paradigm in Atacameño	383
3.32	Lule personal endings for unmarked tense and nominal possession	389
3.33	Lule future and imperative verbal paradigms	389
4.1	The relationship between the Arawakan languages of the pre-Andean area	423
4.2	Yaneshaʹ (Amuesha) phoneme inventory	424
4.3	The relationship among the pre-Andean members of the Tupi–Guaraní language family	431
4.4	Shuar phoneme inventory	434
4.5	The Shuar switch-reference system illustrated with the verb ant- ‘to hear’	446
4.6	Phoneme inventory of Bora	450
4.7	Phoneme inventory of Huao	454
4.8	The sound inventory of Cholón	464
4.9	Chiquitano phoneme inventory	480
4.10	Phoneme inventory of Toba	489
4.11	Phoneme inventory of Bolivian (Noctenes) Mataco	493
4.12	Reconstructed consonant system of Proto-Matacoan	495
4.13	Phoneme inventory of Ayoreo	496
5.1	Mapuche consonant inventory	517
5.2	Personal and possessive pronouns in Mapuche	519
5.3	Mapuche subject endings	523
5.4	Unmarked verbal paradigm in Allentiac	546
5.5	Interrogative verbal paradigm in Allentiac	547
6.1	The relation between putative Chono words identified by Bausani (1975) and their possible equivalents in the Alacalufan materials of Skottsberg (1913) and Clairis (1987)	553
6.2	Historical demographic data for the canoe nomads	555
6.3	Historical demographic data for the hunter nomads	555
6.4	Phoneme inventory of Selkʹnam	559
6.5	Phoneme inventory of Gününa Yajich	562
6.6	Phoneme inventory of Tehuelche	563
6.7	Tentative sound inventory of Chono	565
6.8	Phonemes of Kawesqar	566
6.9	Phoneme inventory of Yahgan (based on Golbert de Goodbar 1977 and Poblete and Salas 1999)	568
6.10	Phoneme inventory of Yahgan (based on Adam 1885)	569
6.11	Person inflection in Yahgan	575
6.12	Phonological features of the Fuegian languages	579
6.13	Morphological features of the Fuegian languages	579
6.14	Constituent order features of the Fuegian languages	579
7.1	Major isoglosses in the Andean areas of Latin American Spanish	588
7.2	Types of speakers of Spanish that may show influence from Quechua	590
7.3	Sprachbund phenomena in the pronunciation of liquids and vibrants in different varieties of Quechua and Spanish in Ecuador	591
7.4	Features claimed to be due to Quechua in different varieties of Spanish	593

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MAPS

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Map 1	The Chibcha Sphere: overview of ethnolinguistic groups attested in premodern sources	page 47
Map 2	The Chibcha Sphere: approximate distribution of indigenous languages in the mid twentieth century	51
Map 3	The Inca Sphere: approximate distribution of indigenous languages in the sixteenth century	166
Map 4	The Inca Sphere: approximate distribution of indigenous languages in the mid twentieth century	169
Map 5	Approximate distribution of Quechua dialects in Peru and adjacent areas	184
Map 6	Distribution of Aymaran and Uru–Chipaya languages	260
Map 7	Eastern lowland languages: Ecuador and northern Peru	412
Map 8	Eastern lowland languages: southern Peru	413
Map 9	Eastern lowland languages: Bolivia	414
Map 10	Eastern lowland languages: the Chaco area	415
Map 11	The Araucanian Sphere: approximate distribution of languages at the time of the Spanish conquest (sixteenth century)	503
Map 12	The Araucanian Sphere: twentieth-century distribution of indigenous languages	504
Map 13	The languages of Tierra del Fuego	551

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PREFACE

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This book took much longer to write than originally intended, particularly because very little was known about some of the regions to be covered, while much new material has become available these last few years. We hope this survey will in its turn inspire new research in the years to come.

   We wish to thank first of all Bernard Comrie for his precise and encouraging comments on earlier chapter drafts. We are very grateful to Ana Fernández, Timothy Curnow, Knut Olawsky and Nicholas Ostler for reading and commenting on specific chapters of the book. A special word of thanks goes to Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino for providing us with data from his ongoing research on the Chipaya language, and to Alfredo Torero for permitting us to use his unpublished work on Puquina. Many colleagues and friends have contributed over the years with valuable advice and commentary, by providing us with newly published or little-known publications, or by calling our attention to new materials and research results. Their generosity is duly remembered, although space does not allow us to mention each of them individually.

   Our gratitude extends in particular to those academic institutions that have provided the environment and the facilities necessary for an undertaking such as the present one: the Netherlands Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS) in Wassenaar, the Netherlands, the Research Centre for Linguistic Typology (RCLT) at La Trobe University in Victoria, Australia, the Research School CNWS of Asian, African and Amerindian Studies and the Faculty of Letters of Leiden University.

   While the book was written under the primary authorship and responsibility of Willem Adelaar, the individual chapters were divided as follows: Pieter Muysken wrote sections 1.1–1.5 of chapter 1 and Adelaar the introductory pages of chapter 1 as well as sections 1.6–1.7. Adelaar also wrote chapter 2 except for section 2.15, chapter 3 except for section 3.2.8, and all of chapter 5. Muysken wrote chapters 4, 6 and 7, as well as the sections 2.15 and 3.2.8.

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ORTHOGRAPHIC CONVENTIONS

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This book on Andean languages relies on heterogeneous sources, including premodern grammatical studies and vocabularies, as well as contemporary descriptions obtained by direct observation of living languages. These circumstances made it difficult to adopt a uniform orthographic practice. The spelling of colonial and other traditional sources has been preserved, allowing for marginal adaptations where the sources are internally inconsistent. Languages such as Allentiac, Muisca and Puquina, which have long been extinct, are known from premodern sources only, and the interpretation of the symbols used to represent them remains tentative. In the case of relatively recent data from languages that became extinct during the twentieth century, such as Mochica and Timote–Cuica, the identification of sounds can be problematic when the recorded materials are not in agreement with modern linguistic standards. Such materials are exemplified in the original spelling as well. Finally, there are premodern sources relating to languages still spoken, for instance, Valdivia’s Araucanian grammar of 1606. The use of premodern sources includes exotic symbols, such as cɥ, cħ, Ʒh, ɤ and œ. Among the languages primarily known from premodern sources, the only one presented in a reconstructed, rather than an original spelling is Cholón (see section 4.11.3).

   For most of the living languages we are on firmer ground, although for these too we have to rely on published sources with different methodological approaches, theoretical backgrounds and degrees of phonological abstraction. In view of the necessity to represent such heterogeneous materials, we have opted for a phonetically based orthography such as commonly found in North American linguistic journals dealing with Amerindian languages (e.g. International Journal of American Linguistics). Consequently, several of the original symbols have been replaced with others, and adjustments have been made at the level of individual languages so as to facilitate the presentation of the linguistic facts in a unified way.¹ In a number of cases (e.g. Guajiro l and r, Mapuche r, Quechua n and q) concessions have been made to established practice. Such deviations of the overall orthographic practice adhered to in this book are duly explained in the respective sections.

Vowels

When only vowel quality is taken into consideration, most languages of the Andean region select their vowels from a set of five, including two front vowels (e, i), two rounded back vowels (o, u) and one low vowel (a). These vowels usually exhibit a certain amount of non-distinctive variation, which is not shown in the orthography except when the phonetic realisation itself is a topic of discussion. In addition, many Andean languages also have an unrounded vowel which may be high central, mid central, or high back. We represent this sixth vowel by means of the symbol ɨ, regardless of its exact phonetic nature and possible existing spelling conventions. For the representation of languages exhibiting an additional contrast between a high central and a mid central vowel we use the symbols ɨ and ə to distinguish between the two. The main reason for following this procedure is to preserve unity in the presentation. It is, furthermore, justified by the consideration that the sixth vowel often shows a wide range of non-contrastive variation, depending on the phonetic environment in which it occurs, and the fact that the observations of different authors rarely coincide, even when they are dealing with the same language. In the absence of specialised phonetic studies, almost non-existent in the case of Andean languages, the exact phonetic nature of the sixth vowel generally remains uncertain.

   Vowel systems of a different qualitative structure are found in Mochica, in languages of the Amazonian lowlands, and in languages of Tierra del Fuego. They will be discussed in the respective chapters (sections 3.4.1, 4.6 and 6.4). For these cases, as well as in explanative phonetic representations relating to more current Andean systems, additional symbols (ɑ, α, œ, ɛ, ï, ɔ, ɯ ) are used.

Secondary articulations of the vowels

−	Vowel length is indicated by a colon (a:, e:, i:, o:, u:), except when the long vowel consists of several tone-bearing units. In that case, the vowels are written separately (aa, etc.). Extra short vowels are marked as follows: ǎ, ě, ǐ, ǒ, ǔ.
−	Nasal vowels: ã, ẽ, ĩ, õ, ũ, etc.
−	Aspirated vowels: ah, eh, ih, oh, uh, etc.
−	Glottalised vowels: aʔ, eʔ, iʔ, oʔ, uʔ, etc.
−	Voiceless vowels: a ̥, e ̥, i ̥, o ̥, u ̥, etc.
−	Tonal contrast is indicated by means of an acute accent (for high or rising tone), a grave accent (for low or falling tone), a superscript level stroke (for mid level tone), or a circumflex (for a descending tonal glide): á, à, ā, â. Contrastive stress is also indicated by means of an acute accent. Stress and tone are indicated only when contrastive.

Non-syllabic vowels

When non-syllabic, the high vowels i and u are analysed as glides, hence they are written as y and w, respectively. This is always the case in syllable-initial position ( yV, wV ), and it is the preferred option in postvocalic syllable-final position (Vy, Vw). Occasionally, however, postvocalic glides are represented as vowels (Vi, Vu), when the status of vowel sequences in the language under discussion appears to favour that choice.

Consonants

In the following overview the consonant symbols are grouped in categories:

−	Bilabial: plain stops p, b; implosive stop: ɓ; fricatives ϕ, β; nasal m; glide w.
−	Labiodental: fricatives f, v.
−	Interdental: stops ṱ, ḓ ; fricatives θ, ð; nasal ṋ.
−	Alveodental: plain stops t, d; implosive stop ɗ; affricates c (ts in phonetic explanations), dz (dz before secondary articulation markers, as in dzy); fricatives s, z; nasal n.
−	Apico-alveolar: fricative ş; affricate tş.
−	Alveopalatal: affricates č, dž; fricatives š, ž; glide y.
−	Retroflex: stops ṭ, ḍ; affricates č̣, dẓ̌; fricatives ṣ̌, ẓ̌; nasal ṇ; glide ɺ.
−	Palatalised velar (ich-laut): fricative: ç; affricate: tç.
−	Velar: stops: k, g; fricatives x, γ; nasal ŋ.
−	Uvular (or postvelar): stops q, G; fricatives x̣, ʁ .
−	Glottal: fricative h; stop ʔ. (Note: h can also refer to a velar fricative because many Andean languages tend to use glottal and velar fricatives in a non-distinctive way.)
−	Laterals: plain (voiced alveodental) l; interdental ḽ; retroflex ḷ; voiceless fricative ɫ; voiceless affricate ʎ̶.
−	Vibrants: voiced tap r; trill rr; tap with palatal affrication ř; retroflex flap ɽ.

Secondary articulations of the consonants

−	Gemination is indicated by doubling the consonant symbol (pp, kk, nn, etc.). Double rr represents a trill, rather than only a geminate. (Quechua nn is a cluster [ŋn]; see section 3.2.5.)
−	Coarticulation is indicated by juxtaposition of the symbols: kp, pk, pkw.
−	Glottalisation: p’, t’, č’, k’, q’, etc.
−	Aspiration (of stops and affricates): ph, th, čh, kh, qh, etc.
−	Preaspiration or voicelessness (of resonants): hm, hn, hr, etc.
−	Palatalisation: ty, ky, ny, ly, etc.
−	Labialisation: pw, mw, kw, xw, etc.
−	Prenasalisation (or postoralisation): mb, nd, ŋg.
−	Postnasalisation (or preoralisation): bm, dn, gŋ.
−	Click-like articulation: p<, m<.
−	Syllabic resonants: l̥, n̥.

    Other symbols and conventions

V	Vowel (only in phonological explanation).
C	Consonant.
[. . .]	Phonetic representation or tentative pronunciation.
	Etymological provenance or borrowing source.
<. . .>	Symbols used in premodern sources.
{ . . . }	Explanation of morphological structure.
-	Morpheme boundary.
	Division of morphemic glosses.
=	Division of constituents in reduplicated forms.
.	Division of speech elements covered by a single morphemic gloss.
	Division of morphemic glosses relating to a portmanteau speech element.

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ABBREVIATIONS

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In the example sentences of this book morphemic glosses may consist of numbers, letters, or letter combinations. For reasons of presentation, all letter combinations have been limited to a maximum of two elements. Grammatical person is indicated by means of the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4, which refer to the four-person system characteristic of the structure of some of the languages treated in this work:

1	first person	(speaker)
2	second person	(addressee)
3	third person	(neither)
4	fourth person	(speaker + addressee)

These numbers can be followed by the symbols S (subject), O (object), or P (possessor) without an intervening hyphen or dot:

1S, 2S, 3S, 4S	first-person subject, etc.
1O, 2O, 3O, 4O	first-person object, etc.
1P, 2P, 3P, 4P	first-person possessor, etc.

The following list is an inventory of all the remaining morphemic glosses, which consist of letters or letter combinations.

A	absolute (as opposed to relational)
	absolutive (as opposed to ergative)
AB	ablative case
AC	accusative case
AD	additive (‘also’, ‘even’)
AF	affirmative (evidential)
AG	agentive nominaliser
AJ	adjective
	adjectiviser
AL	allative case
AN	anticompletive (‘still’, ‘yet’)
AO	aorist
AP	applicative
AR	attributive
AS	assistance
AT	attenuator
AU	augmentative
AV	adverbialiser
AX	auxiliary
B	benefactive case
BN	beneficiary
C	comitative case
CA	causative
CD	conditional mood
CE	centripetal (converging motion)
CF	centrifugal (diverging motion)
CL	classifier or shape morpheme
	(with semantic specification, e.g. CL: round object)
CM	completive (‘already’)
CN	continuative
CO	co-ordination
CP	comparative (‘like’)
CR	circular motion (‘go around’)
CS	courteous
CT	change of topic
CU	customary
CV	copula verbaliser
D	dual
DA	dative case
DB	distributive
DC	deictic
DD	different directions
DE	desiderative
DF	definite
DG	degree
DI	diminutive
DL	delimitative (‘just’, ‘only’)
DM	detrimental
DP	deductive past
DR	directional
DS	different subjects (in switch-reference systems)
DT	distal
DU	dubitative
DV	declarative
DW	downward motion
E	ergative case
EC	exclamation
EM	emphatic
ES	external subject
EU	euphonic element
EV	event/action
EX	exclusive (addressee excluded)
F	future
FA	factitive (‘make’)
FE	feminine
FM	factual mood
FN	future-oriented nominaliser
FO	focus
FR	far remote
G	genitive case
GA	genitive agent
GO	goal
GP	generic pair
GR	gerund
H	hither (motion towards speaker)
HB	habitual past
HN	honorific
HO	hortative
HS	hearsay (evidential)
HY	hypothetical
I	inverse
IA	imperfective aspect
IC	inchoative
ID	indicative mood
IE	irrealis mood
IF	infinitive
II	indefinite
IK	indirect knowledge
IL	inferential
IM	imperative mood
IN	inclusion (‘provided with’)
IP	inferential past
IR	interrogative
IS	instrumental case
IT	intensive
IU	immediate future
IV	inclusive (addressee included)
IW	inward motion
L	locative case
LA	lack (‘not having’)
LB	left-behind object
LI	limitative case (‘until’)
LK	linking element
LN	locality nominaliser
LP	lexicalised prefix
LS	lexicalised suffix
LV	locative verbaliser
M	momentaneous
MA	motion across (‘traverse’)
MD	medial
MS	masculine
MT	motion
N	noun
	nominaliser
NA	narrative past
NC	non-control
ND	non-determinate
NE	negation
NF	near future
NM	nominative case
NP	nominal past
NR	near remote
NS	non-speaker
NT	non-transitive
NU	neutral
O	object
OB	obligation
OC	oblique case
OE	ongoing event
OS	ownership (‘having’)
OV	obviative
P	possessor
PA	past tense
PC	paucal
PD	predicate marker
PE	perfect tense
PF	perfective aspect
PI	privative
PL	plural
PM	permissive
PN	present tense
PO	potential mood
PR	progressive
PS	passive
PT	perlative case (path)
PU	pronoun
PV	previous event
PX	proximate
Q	question marker
QU	quotative
R	relativiser
RC	reciprocal
RD	realis mood
RE	recent past
RF	reflexive
RL	relational (possessed)
RM	remote past
RO	reportative
RP	repetitive
RR	referential
RS	restitutive
RU	remote future
S	subject
SA	simple aspect
SD	sudden discovery tense
SG	singular
SI	simulation
SJ	subjunctive mood
SM	simultaneous
SO	source
SN	stative nominaliser
SP	supine
SQ	sequential
SR	speaker
SS	same subject (in switch-reference systems)
ST	state
SU	subordination
T	transitive
TF	transformative (‘become’)
TH	thither (motion not towards speaker)
TO	topic
TS	thematic suffix
TV	thematic vowel
U	urgency
UF	unfulfilled
UG	undergoer
UN	unspecified subject
UW	upward motion
V	verb
	verbaliser
VE	verbal extension
VO	vocative
Z	zero complement
ZP	zero person